Video Games to Counter Discrimination and Disinformation An Educational Approach to Media Literacy

Abstract

In recent years, discriminatory narratives linked to disinformation have fuelled hatred and prejudice, undermining social cohesion and increasing distrust in democratic institutions. These phenomena also affect young people, who are often ill-equipped to address them. As a result, educational policies on media literacy have been implemented, incorporating video games as a strategic tool to develop critical media competencies.

Within this framework, this paper analyses the potential of video games as innovative tools in media literacy education and in countering discrimination and disinformation. The research examines 18 video games through four analytical dimensions: educational objectives, game mechanics, narrative strategies, and visual language. The findings reveal innovative patterns in educational game design and increasing sophistication in synthesising ludic and pedagogical elements, whilst also identifying critical issues such as technological obsolescence, the need for mediators, and the lack of systematic user feedback data, which limits comprehensive impact assessment.

1. Introduction, Objectives and Methodological Approach

The proliferation of discriminatory and disinformative content poses a significant challenge to democratic societies, particularly affecting younger generations. In response to this critical issue, the educational sector is exploring innovative approaches leveraging the potential of digital media. Within this context, video games—traditionally regarded as entertainment tools—are emerging as valuable pedagogical resources, enabling experiential learning approaches.

This research examines the innovative potential of video games in enhancing media literacy among young people. Specifically, it investigates their role in developing critical competencies essential for identifying and countering disinformation and discrimination within the contemporary media ecosystem, whilst exploring the factors that enhance youth engagement with these educational tools.

The methodology adopts a dual approach, combining systematic literature review with an empirical examination of 18 case studies. The cases were selected based on two primary criteria: their implementation in anti-discrimination programmes and their presence on collaborative platforms developing socially-oriented video games, with particular emphasis on projects endorsed by established institutions. The analysis spans from 2016 to 2023, strategically aligning with the implementation and evolution of the EU Code of Conduct—from its initial adoption through its sequential expansion to various digital platforms (Instagram, Snapchat and Dailymotion in 2018, TikTok in 2020, LinkedIn in 2021, Rakuten Viber and Twitch in 2022). This temporal framework enables the examination of parallel developments in educational tools and counter-policies through four analytical dimensions, illuminating how the evolution of the EU Code of Conduct has shaped approaches to educational game design.

2. State of the Art

2.1. Hate, Discrimination and Disinformation: Destabilising Factors for Democracies

Hate speech, discrimination and disinformation represent fundamental threats to democratic societies, undermining social cohesion, eroding trust in institutions and polarising public discourse (Farkas & Schou, 2019; Udupa et al., 2020).

As articulated in the UN Action Plan, hate speech encompasses ‘any form of communication that attacks or employs pejorative or discriminatory language targeting an individual or group based on their identity’. The EU Code of Conduct (European Commission, 2016) embodies a practical implementation of this vision, establishing an operational framework that has systematically engaged major digital platforms in combating online hate speech. This synergy between global vision (UN) and regional implementation (EU) has fostered an ecosystem conducive to developing innovative educational tools.

Notwithstanding the implementation of numerous international counter-initiatives (European Commission, 2020; United Nations, 2019), these phenomena continue to proliferate throughout the contemporary media ecosystem, disproportionately affecting younger generations. This demographic proves particularly vulnerable to both discriminatory influences and the effects of disinformation, frequently lacking the critical tools essential for navigating today’s complex information landscape (Smahel et al., 2020; UNESCO, 2023). Within this context, media literacy emerges as a crucial educational response, equipping individuals with the necessary tools to comprehend, critically evaluate and consciously engage with the contemporary media ecosystem.

2.2. Media Literacy and Video Games: Theoretical Foundations and Evaluative Frameworks

In 1980, Seymour Papert investigated the educational potential of technology, highlighting how computers can promote active learning through experimentation and exploration. Media literacy originated from Len Masterman's studies (1985), which highlighted its role in the social construction of media reality. James Paul Gee (2003) further developed this concept by exploring the literacy opportunities offered by games, the experiential learning they ensure, and how players can interact with themes and concepts difficult to access through traditional didactic approaches.

In the 1980s, with the spread of home computers and consoles, educational video games proliferated, mainly in scientific and mathematical fields. In the 1990s, research analysed the key elements to make these games more effective and engaging, such as rules, feedback, and interaction. Simultaneously, Game Studies examined both narrative and ludic aspects, creating the foundations for Game-Based Learning (GBL) and Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL). These methodologies are divided into three distinct categories: serious games, organised training tools that combine ludic elements with educational purposes; gamification, which uses typical video game elements (scoring systems, progression, and rewards) to increase user engagement; and game-based learning, a didactic approach that employs games, both digital and traditional, as learning means. With the new millennium, the renewed interest in Edutainment that combines education and entertainment, the application of these approaches has extended the educational role of video games.

All this demonstrates how video games have progressively established themselves as educational tools thanks to their interactive nature (Gee, 2003), their ability to simulate complex systems, and their role in promoting critical thinking (Buckingham, 2006; Bogost, 2007).

In this framework and given the growing importance of video games in media literacy, it becomes increasingly essential to develop tools to systematically evaluate their educational effectiveness, integrating existing frameworks such as the Game-based Learning Evaluation Framework (GEM), the Learning Mechanics-Game Mechanics (LM-GM) model, or RETAIN (Relevance, Embedding, Transfer, Adaptation, Immersion, Naturalisation) to measure the educational impact of these tools.

2.3. Educational Video Games Evaluation Frameworks

The assessment of video games’ educational efficacy requires sophisticated instruments capable of examining the alignment between pedagogical objectives and game mechanics. A comparative analysis of prominent frameworks—SGDAF (Mitgutsch & Alvarado, 2012), LM-GM (Arnab et al., 2015), RETAIN (Gunter et al., 2008), and the empirical model developed by Ruth S. Contreras-Espinosa and Jose Luis Eguia-Gomez (2023)—reveals complementary yet distinctly limited approaches. SGDAF emphasises the systematic analysis of objectives, mechanics, and narrative, but neglects direct player experience. Conversely, LM-GM concentrates on player-game interaction without providing precise metrics for educational effectiveness. The RETAIN model, through its six interconnected dimensions (relevance, embedding, transfer, adaptation, immersion, and naturalisation), presents a more structured evaluation of the integration between educational content and gameplay.

Contreras-Espinosa and Eguia-Gomez’s investigation of the “Yo-MEDIA” project, examining 24 media literacy video games, has illuminated both the potential of games in developing critical competencies and the limitations inherent in the prevalent behaviorist approach. To address these constraints, a tripartite evaluative framework emerges as essential: formative (encompassing testing and design iteration), summative (involving pre/post implementation comparative analysis), and longitudinal (comprising effectiveness verification through extended studies). The integration of these phases with mixed methodological approaches could yield more comprehensive assessments of educational impact.

3. Video Games for Media Literacy and Combating Discrimination: Case Study Analysis

3.1 . Analysis: Objectives and Methodology

The research aims to investigate the effectiveness of video games as tools to counter discrimination and disinformation, with two main objectives:

- Understanding how to nurture young people's engagement with these educational resources

- Identifying possible development directions for these training tools

To achieve these objectives, this section analyses a selection of video games designed to address the themes of discrimination and disinformation. The selection focuses on projects developed within educational initiatives supported by the European Community, NGOs or international associations, as well as video games that have been awarded or recognised for their quality and impact. Games with different visual design, game mechanics and narrative strategies have been included to offer a broader and more in-depth comparison between works united by similar educational purposes.

The analysis is structured through four fundamental dimensions:

1. Educational Objectives involve promoting understanding and respect for cultural, physical, and social diversity; developing critical analysis competencies; and strengthening values such as equality, empathy, and collaboration.

2. Gameplay Mechanics encompass gameplay (structuring missions, puzzles, and interactions addressing discrimination and disinformation scenarios); decision systems (meaningful choices affecting narrative development, stimulating reflection and responsibility); and feedback systems (reward or penalty mechanisms that encourage inclusive and constructive behaviors).

3. Narrative Strategies include narrative structure (linear or branching paths with choices influencing outcomes, enhancing player engagement) and identification elements (character development and roles designed to stimulate emotional connection and active participation).

4. Visual Language considers colour codes and visual tone (strategic use of colour to define atmospheres and emphasize emotional components and educational messages); illustrations and images (approaches ranging from realism to stylisation, or combinations thereof, aligned with learning objectives); and interface design (typographic choices, readability, information hierarchies, and layout accessibility).

For each dimension, the analysis considers:

- Observations and Limitations highlighting main critical issues that emerged in game application and previously analysed aspects

- Development Opportunities suggesting possible improvements and developments for the analysed educational video games

Fig. 1 synthesises the comparative analysis of the examined video games, highlighting the key dimensions identified in the analytical framework.

Figure 1. A Comparative Analysis Framework of Educational Video Games Addressing Discrimination and Misinformation.

3.2 . The Case Studies

3. 2 . 1 . European Community-Supported Initiatives: Educational Video Games for Addressing Discrimination and Misinformation

Recent years have witnessed the implementation of several European Community-supported projects utilising video games as tools for enhancing media literacy, fostering critical thinking, and addressing discrimination. These initiatives are aligned with the United Nations Action Plan on combating hate speech, which emphasises the fundamental importance of addressing root causes through educational interventions and youth engagement. The European Union Code of Conduct monitoring framework, implemented through a network of member state organisations, provides a methodological structure for evaluating the efficacy of these educational instruments. Within this context, video games are integrated as components of comprehensive educational programmes encompassing multiple pedagogical activities. Four initiatives merit particular attention for their methodological approaches and demonstrated impact:

1. The “Yo-MEDIA” initiative, supported by the European Media and Information Fund, addresses youth media literacy within pandemic and conflict contexts. The methodological framework incorporates both qualitative and quantitative analytical approaches, emphasising experiential learning through gaming mechanisms. The programme facilitates collaboration among educators, media professionals, and youth participants (aged 11-17) to enhance information verification competencies. The initiative comprises three distinct gaming instruments: the Social Media Puppeteers role-playing simulation, the Social Media Fake News card game, and the Data Defenders video game. The latter, situated in 2165, integrates tower defence mechanics with media literacy elements, requiring participants to implement data analysis tools to protect information systems from disinformation attacks.

2. “Youth for Love”, co-financed through the European Union Rights, Equality and Citizenship (REC) programme, addresses adolescent bullying, violence, and cyberbullying phenomena. The pedagogical framework, grounded in identification and decision-making processes, facilitates the development of risk situation recognition and management competencies. The programme’s central component, Youth for Love – The Game, presents an interactive narrative environment wherein participants engage with twelve interconnected character narratives, implementing decision-making processes within quotidian contexts, supported by adult guidance frameworks.

3. “CONVEY”, a transnational initiative within the Rights, Equality and Citizenship programme, addresses sexual violence and harassment through digital pedagogical interventions focusing on gender stereotypes. Targeting adolescents aged 14-18, the programme integrates educator training, pilot implementation, policy recommendations, and longitudinal impact assessment. The initiative’s primary instrument, Not A Game [Fig. 2], examines gender-based violence through an investigative framework incorporating four case studies. The gameplay methodology synthesises investigative processes, temporal narratives, and interactive dialogue, integrating documentary evidence and primary source testimonials through multimedia presentation.

Figure 2. Screenshot from the video game Not A Game (CONVEY Onlus , 2019)

4. “Play for your rights!”, supported by Erasmus+, addresses gender-based discrimination and sexism through media education and gamification methodologies. The initiative facilitates educator-student collaboration (ages 12-18) in the co-development of digital instruments addressing social media hate speech. The programme incorporates the Strategic Relations card game and an Urban Game implementation [Fig. 3], integrating physical exploration and digital interaction through strategically positioned QR codes. Participating groups engage with discrimination scenarios through competitive social media simulations.

Figure 3. Screenshot from the video game Play for your rights! – Urban Game . ( Zaffiria Onlus , 2020 ).

3. 2. 2. Amnesty International ’ s Contribution: HateSick - Alter ’ s Adventures

Amnesty International, as part of its comprehensive programme of initiatives addressing online hate and promoting inclusion—including the “Hate Barometer” and the “Table for Countering Hate Speech”—has developed a video game addressing intolerance and discrimination: HateSick - Alter’s Adventures [Fig. 4]. Developed with input from children and adolescents, the game aims to raise youth awareness about hate and discrimination. The video game is structured as a 2D platform experience where environmental exploration and overcoming physical obstacles serve as metaphors for social barriers. The narrative unfolds through non-player characters’ personal stories within a dystopian context dominated by intolerance, where the protagonist discovers social exclusion dynamics through encounters with marginalised characters.

Figure 4. Screenshot from the video game HateSick - Alter’s Adventures (Steam Factory, 2019).

3. 2 . 3 . Games for Change: Diversified Approaches to Addressing Discrimination

Since 2004, the Games for Change (G4C) organisation has supported initiatives utilising Serious Games for social change. As illustrated in Tab. 1, analysis of the video games on their platform reveals ten significant cases addressing discrimination and misinformation through complementary approaches. In media literacy, NewsFeed Defenders simulates a social media experience to develop information verification competencies, whilst in the migration context, Bury Me, My Love and Papers, Please offer distinct perspectives on the phenomenon: the former through real-time interactive narrative of a refugee’s journey, the latter through simulation of bureaucratic and moral complexities in border control.

Social discrimination is explored through diverse immersive experiences: Dot’s Home addresses systemic racism through temporal navigation of urban dynamics, whilst 1,000 Cut Journey employs virtual reality to illuminate daily microaggressions. Another Dream combines interactive documentary and VR to examine the intersection of LGBTQ+ discrimination and forced migration. This War of Mine and Liyla and the Shadows of War [Fig. 5] document conflict impact on civilians, the former through survival mechanics, the latter via a platform narrative based on actual events in Gaza.

Gamer Girl and Concrete Genie [Fig. 6] represent innovative approaches to technological sector sexism and bullying respectively, the latter employing visual metaphors and creative mechanics that transform art into a resilience instrument.

Figure 5. Screenshot from the video game Liyla and the Shadows of War (Rasheed Abueide , 2016).

Figure 6. Screenshot from the video game Concrete Genie ( Pixelopus , 2019).

3.2 . 4 . Newsgames and Inoculation Theory in Addressing Disinformation

Newsgames represent a hybrid form combining journalism and game design to inform the public about current affairs and develop resistance to false information, applying principles of psychological inoculation theory. According to van der Linden, Roozenbeek and Basol (2022), this theoretical framework employs a vaccine analogy: exposing individuals to controlled doses of manipulative information (prebunking) activates “mental antibodies” against persuasive techniques, effectively “inoculating” the mind against disinformation.

Bad News, developed through collaboration between DROG, Gusmanson Design, and the University of Cambridge, exemplifies this approach through paradoxical design: players, positioned as disinformation creators, directly experience media manipulation strategies, from polarisation to conspiracy theory construction. The interface, replicating social media aesthetics, structures this experience through progressive choices revealing the consequences of information manipulation. Longitudinal research on Bad News [Fig. 07] efficacy (Maertens et al., 2021) documents significant enhancement in false information recognition and critical evaluation capabilities.

This methodology has generated targeted implementations: Harmony Square (2020) addressing political disinformation and subsequently Go Viral countering pandemic-related misinformation proliferation, demonstrating the model’s adaptability in responding to diverse forms of information manipulation.

Figure 7. Screenshot from the video game Bad News (DROG, Gusmanson Design, University of Cambridge, 2018)

4. Results of Video Game Analysis against Discrimination and Disinformation: Emerging Trends and Critical Issues

4.1. Identified Evolutionary Patterns

The analysis of 18 case studies, developed through four analytical dimensions and summarised in Tab. 1, shows significant evolutionary patterns in serious games. The comparative table highlights a growing integration between game mechanics and educational objectives, alongside a diversification of narrative strategies based on the themes addressed and a constant adaptation of visual language to the needs of the target audience. Specifically:

1. In educational objectives, a training strategy structured on three interconnected dimensions emerges. The first concerns the development of empathy and identification, as in 1,000 Cut Journey and Another Dream, which emphasise direct experience and emotional immersion. The second focuses on analytical skills, as in Bad News, NewsFeed Defenders and Data Defenders, emphasising critical thinking and information evaluation. The third involves socio-personal growth, present in Youth for Love and Concrete Genie, where social learning combines with individual development.

2. Game mechanics follow two distinct but complementary approaches. The first favours consequential decision-making systems, as in Papers, Please and This War of Mine, where player choices produce concrete effects in the game world. The second emphasises analytical-evaluative systems, as in Data Defenders and NewsFeed Defenders, focusing on measuring decisional impact.

3. The narrative approach develops through three modes: contextualised personal narrative, as in Dot’s Home and Gamer Girl; projection into future scenarios, illustrated by Data Defenders; and narrative based on real events, as in Not A Game. Character development and construction of realistic situations strengthen player identification.

4. Visual design presents various solutions, from the minimalism of Liyla and the Shadows of War to the photorealism of 1,000 Cut Journey. The strategic use of colour becomes essential narrative support, as in Concrete Genie and Another Dream. Interfaces incorporate social media elements and digital platforms familiar to the target audience.

4.2. Critical Discussion and Future Perspectives

The results highlight that game design evolution in this field manifests in growing thematic complexity and refinement of narrative solutions, and that the integration of these games into broader educational projects enhances their pedagogical effectiveness. There is an emerging greater capacity to balance the playful aspect with the educational one and to create meaningful experiences where learning arises from interaction. Also significant is the co-design of these video games with young people to ensure the correspondence of content and mechanics to target audience needs.

The evolution of game design reflects increasing thematic complexity and narrative sophistication, amplified by integration into broader educational projects. As theorised by Miguel Sicart (2013), systems based on micro-decisions foster greater ethical depth compared to limited-choice narratives, creating environments where consequences emerge from the accumulation of small decisions.

The main critical issues concern: dependence on intermediaries to optimise educational impact, technological obsolescence due to the rapid evolution of digital media, the need for constant content updating due to continuously changing strategies in the spread of discriminatory ideas and disinformation. Another limitation is the difficulty of measuring the specific impact of these educational tools, distinguishing them from other factors that influence media literacy.

These critical issues indicate possible directions for future research, including the need to develop precise metrics to evaluate the effectiveness of these tools and to consider cultural variables in their implementation, through an approach that measures not only skill acquisition but also long-term behavioural changes. Quantitative pre/post intervention analyses could be employed with validated scales and qualitative evaluations through focus groups, semi-structured interviews, and longitudinal behavioural tracking.

5. Conclusions: Effectiveness and Perspectives of Video Games in Media Education and Combating Discrimination

Recent years have shown significant evolution in educational video game implementation, confirming Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman’s (2003) insight: games not only reflect culture but help shape it, influencing our thought patterns. Game design proves crucial in developing critical competencies and media literacy, promoting exploration of diverse perspectives and reducing prejudice (Passmore et al., 2018). This evolution reflects EU Code of Conduct and UN Action Plan objectives: developing resistance to hate narratives through innovative educational tools, while promoting critical thinking and digital awareness in an evolving media ecosystem.

Analysis highlights three key dimensions in educational video game effectiveness: capacity to transform complex social themes into meaningful interactive experiences; integration of ludic mechanics with educational objectives; and development of critical competencies through narrative immersion. For anti-discrimination video games, direct youth involvement in design emerges as a determining factor, alongside multiplayer experience implementation facilitating intercultural dialogue through immersive technologies.

Visual design assumes a strategic role in mediating between representative authenticity and emotional engagement, while newsgame evolution indicates significant potential in social platform integration and artificial intelligence utilisation for personalised learning. The collaborative dimension proves essential in developing effective informal learning communities.

Future challenges require an integrated approach combining more sophisticated evaluation tools with continuous adaptation to the digital ecosystem. These educational tools’ success depends on their ability to evolve alongside technological and social transformations, maintaining educational effectiveness through synergistic collaboration between game designers, educators, researchers and young users, supported by institutions. This represents the necessary condition for developing educational tools capable of effectively contributing to building a digitally aware and inclusive society.